East African Journal of Science, Technology and Innovation
EAJSTI is a multidisciplinary journal, which publishes original research of relevance to the EAC, covering science, technology and Innovation applications for development. Its goal is to enhance, advance and disseminate scientific, technological and innovative knowledge that supports East African regional development.
EAJSTI requires that, before manuscript acceptance, authors sign a license agreement granting EASTECO exclusive rights to use and authorize the use of their contribution.
Predicting the current and future suitable habitats of cassava and cassava brown streak disease in Africa
Cassava (Manihot esculenta) is among the most important staple crops globally. In sub-Saharan Africa, it is cultivated mainly by subsistence farmers who depend directly on it for their socio-economic welfare. However, its yield in some regions has been threatened by several diseases, especially the Cassava brown streak disease (CBSD). Changes in climatic conditions enhance the risk of the disease spreading to other planting regions. This work aimed to identify, characterize and map the current and potential future suitable habitats for cassava and cassava brown streak disease in Africa. We obtained occurrence data for cassava in Africa from the Global Biodiversity Information Facility (GBIF), and cassava brown streak disease occurrences from published literature. We used an ensemble of four species distribution models (SDMs), together with environmental covariates to characterize the current and future distribution of cassava and CBSD in Africa. Our results identified isothermality (Bio03, relative importance: 31.6%) as the highest contributor to the current distribution of cassava, while cassava cassava-harvested area (CHA, 14.6%) contributed the most to the current distribution of CBSD outbreaks. The geographic distributions of these target species are also expected to shift under climate projection scenarios. Using the recent climate scenarios from the Coupled Model Intercomparison Project (CMIP6) for the mid-term (2041-2060) and long-term (2061-2080) in Africa, our study highlights suitable habitats for cassava, as well as one of its economically important diseases (CBSD). For cassava, about 54.6% (16.2 million km2) of the continent is currently suitable for cassava production. These suitable habitats (i.e., suitability above 0.2) were predicted to be located predominantly in Sub-Saharan Africa. On the other hand, approximately 33.7% of Africa's land area (10.2 million km2) is currently at risk of CBSD spread. Based on our findings we propose that improved cassava varieties tolerant to CBSD should be deployed in all cassava production regions
Copyright (c) 2026 East African Journal of Science, Technology and Innovation https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0
Adoption of Advanta sunflower hybrid seeds and its well-being impact on smallholder farmers in Dodoma, Singida and Manyara regions
Recently interventions have focused on rising agricultural productivity through the promotion of improved agricultural technologies such as seeds because these determine the income obtained from farming activities. This study assessed the adoption of and impacts of using Advanta sunflower hybrids seeds (ASHSs) on smallholder farmers’ wellbeing. A multistage sampling technique was applied and a sample of 270 smallholder sunflower farmers was selected. The household survey questionnaires, focus group discussions and key informant interviews were used to collect primary data. Descriptive statistics run to profile the studied farmers with respect to their socio-economic characteristics. A binary logistic regression model helped to determine the factors that influence farmers’ decisions towards the ASHSs Adoption. Propensity score matching was used to isolate the impact attributable to ASHSs among the smallholder farmers. Results indicated that yield per acre, number of years spent in school, seed price, household size, geographical location and oil content statistically influenced farmers’ decision to adopt the ASHSs. There is a significant impact in terms of yield and income from the use of Hysun33 seed variety and the rest of the seeds (Aguara4). The average treatment effect on the treated (ATT) was positive for all the matching methods; ATT on yield was 201.32kg/acre and income effect of 95161.12 Tshs/acre for Nearest Neighbor Matching where ATT on yield was 155.97kg/acre and income effect of 122875.95 Tshs/acre for the Caliper Matching. Overall, a higher yield and income for the adopters was attributed to ASHSs compared to the non-adopters. This study recommended that agricultural development initiatives should promote productivity-enhancing agricultural technologies such as hybrid seeds effectively.
Agriculture economics, Rural economy, Agribusiness
Pepper (Piper nigrum L.) harvest and postharvest handling practices used by smallholder farmers in Morogoro district, Tanzania
The purpose of this study was to collect baseline information on the socio-economic factors, harvesting, and postharvest handling practices among smallholder pepper farmers in Morogoro district, Tanzania. Understanding these practices is vital for developing appropriate harvest and postharvest handling techniques, but less is known about the harvesting and postharvest handling practices used by small-scale farmers in the district. The study was carried out in 10 villages of 5 wards in the Mkuyuni and Matombo divisions, using a mix of semi-structured questionnaires, key informant interviews (KI), and focus group discussions (FGD). The gathered data were analyzed using the Statistical Package for Social Sciences Version 25 (SPSS, Inc, USA, IL, USA). The results revealed that a majority (86.6%) of farmers harvested pepper when at least one berry on a spike turned red, indicating that farmers primarily rely on the visual ripeness of the peppercorns for harvesting. Regarding postharvest handling, 86.2% of farmers reported drying their peppercorns under the sun on mats, a common practice for removing moisture. For storage, nearly all respondents (98.6%) stored their dried pepper in polypropylene bags, which is standard practice in the region. However, the study also identified significant postharvest losses due to mould growth, with 95.75% of farmers citing it as the primary cause of deterioration in stored pepper. These findings highlight the need for further studies to optimize drying and storage techniques to reduce mould growth and minimize postharvest losses. Implementing improved postharvest management strategies could enhance the quality and marketability of pepper, eventually benefiting smallholder farmers in Morogoro district. This study underlines the importance of context-specific solutions to improve the postharvest handling of pepper and reduce economic losses.
Enzyme activities and wheat growth response in soils amended with coal ash from the UK and Tanzania
Due to the presence of essential plant nutrients and either acid or alkaline properties, coal ash can be a valuable amendment in improving characteristics and crop productivity of alkaline or acidic soils. This study aimed to evaluate the effects of coal ash application to woodland and arable soils on soil pH, selected soil enzyme activities (dehydrogenase, acid phosphatase, alkaline phosphatase, urease and β-glucosidase) and on vegetative growth of wheat. Two pot experiments were conducted in which wheat (Triticum aestivum var. Willow) was grown in woodland and arable soils amended with ash collected from either the UK or Tanzania, at concentrations of 0, 2, 4, 8 and 16% (w/w). Wheat was grown for 50 days. Soil amendment with UK ash at 0-16 % increased significantly (p<0.001) the pH of woodland and arable soils while amendment with Tanzanian ash at 0-16 % reduced the pH of both soils (p<0.001). Application of low concentrations (0-4%) of UK ash to both soils increased dehydrogenase and urease activities and wheat growth, but these ash concentrations didn’t show any significant effect on alkaline and acid phosphatase activities. Glucosidase activity increased significantly (p<0.001) when woodland soil was amended with 2% of UK ash, then decreased significantly with increasing ash concentration. Application of 16% UK ash also inhibited acid and alkaline phosphatase activities. Application of the Tanzanian ash at low concentration did not have any significant effect on the activities of enzymes studied while application at 8-16% inhibited all enzyme activities. Tanzanian ash did not affect wheat growth parameters when applied to both soils while UK ash improved wheat growth. This study demonstrates that soil amendment with coal ash can either cause beneficial or detrimental effects, depending on the nature of the ash and soil characteristics thus, strategic agronomic use of coal ash is recommended.
Coal ash; enzyme activities; soil amendment; wheat growth
Horticulture value chain mapping: An Illustration of participating youths in Tabora Municipality, United Republic of Tanzania
Youth participation in Tanzanian agriculture sector especially in horticulture subsector is not satisfactory in spite of promising prospects unveiled in the subsector. The understanding on participating status of the youths along horticultural value chains is crucial to design strategies for attracting more youths in the subsector. Such understanding is not well known despite its essentiality stated. This study used the youths from Tabora Municipality as a case to understand horticultural value chain maps and respective coordination mechanisms along the chains. The study adopted a mixed data collection techniques of digitalized youth survey and focus group discussions with descriptive and content analysis as methods of analysis used. It was then found that the youths participate in value chain nodes such as production, processing, storing, local trading, transporting, wholesaling, retailing and consumption with differing participation frequency. For instance, none of the studied youth farmers were found operating registered processing firm due to capital limitation at their disposal. Youth farmers were also found to perform activities beyond one node (multitasking) of value chains with little efficiency. Another notable finding was that youth farmers were missing reliable extension, credit and quality accreditation services that jeopardize productivity and their operating business environment. Coordination was eventually found miserable as youth actors along the chain were not trusting each other. Finally, for attracting more youths into the subsector, the study recommended institutional arrangements like contract farming being adopted in the subsector given the prevailing nature of horticultural crops and status of the actors along the chains.
Degree of Master of Business Administration in Agribusiness of Sokoine University of Agriculture
Impacts of Gibberellic Acid (GA3) on growth and yield of green beans (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) in Northern Tanzania
Green bean production in Tanzania ranges from 6 to 8 t/h which is far below the potential yield of 15 to 20 t/ha, which is largely caused by poor soil fertility of most of Tanzania’s land. Gibberellic acids (GAs) are naturally occurring growth-stimulating substances used to promote the growth and development of many plant species. Therefore, the study was carried out to determine the effects of Gibberellic acid growth hormone on the growth and yield of green beans at field conditions. The experiment was conducted using Randomized Complete Block Design with four replications and five treatments at TARI - Tengeru research farm from May to August 2023. Treatments were negative control, with three rates of Gibberellic acid (6.25 g/ha, 12.5 g/ha, and 18.75 g/ha) and Snow Paushak (500 ml/ha) as positive control. Data on growth and yield variables were collected at 33, 40, 47, 54, and 62 days after planting (DAP). The results showed that the application of GA3 significantly (p<0.05) increased the leaf area index of green beans at 33 DAP. Also, the application of GA3 at 40, 47, and 54 DAP significantly (p<0.05) affected the plant height of green beans whereby GA3 (18.75 g/ha) showed the highest. The highest plant fresh weight was recorded at GA3 at 12.5 g/ha (13.39 t/ha) with the equivalent of 11.86% yield increase, followed by GA3 at 18.75 g/ha (12.72 t/ha) with the equivalent of 6.27% yield increase. This study concluded that the use of 12.5 g/ha up to 18.75 g/ha GA3 can be used as an alternative foliar fertilizer since it has shown a significant improvement in the yield of green beans. This will contribute to economic development and livelihood by engaging communities in the production of green beans. Further study particularly on economic aspects is recommended before upscaling of this practice.
The use of comfrey as soil amendment to improve growth of maize and amaranth vegetable
Being an organic material enriched with essential nutrients, comfrey plant (Symphytum spp) can be used as a soil amendment to improve soil characteristics and crop productivity. This study aimed to evaluate the potential of comfrey plant on growth and yield of maize (Zea mays) and amaranth (Amaranthus spp). Two pot experiments were conducted where in first experiment, maize was grown in soil amended with Comfrey leaves powder (CLP) at 0, 2, 4 and 8% (w/w) for 6 weeks and in second experiment, Amaranthus was grown in soil amended with Comfrey roots powder (CRP) at 0, 2 and 4 % (w/w) for 5 weeks. Application of 8% of CLP to the soil increased maize height significantly (by 29 cm, p = 0.045) compared to maize in control treatment. Maize leaves number increased significantly (from 5 to 8 leaves, p = 0.001) following soil amendment with 2% of CLP. Stem diameter increased significantly with increasing CLP from 0 – 4% (diameter from 0.7 to 1.2 cm, p <0.001) compared to control, further increase in CLP up to 8% had no further significant effect. Total maize plant biomass increased significantly (from 8.21 to 28.25 g, p <0.001) following the soil amendment with 0 – 8% of CLP. Soil amendment with 2% of CRP increased significantly Amaranthus shoot biomass (0.48 to 1.31 g, p = 0.048) and total plant biomass (0.66 to 1.48 g, p = 0.018), further increase in CRP had no further significant effect. Positive growth responses noted in both crops following soil amendment with comfrey could be linked to high nutrients composition noted in comfrey powders. From this study, the use of 2 to 8 %(w/w) comfrey powders is recommended to improve vegetative growth of amaranth and maize, however further studies on use of comfrey as soil amendment are highly recommended.
Amaranth spp; comfrey leaves and roots powders; comfrey plant; maize; soil amendment
Anaerobic soil disinfestation using locally available carbon sources as a potential management strategy for bacterial wilt in tomatoes
Tomato production in Tanzania is far lower than the 27.5 t/ha global average. Important factors such as deteriorating soil fertility, using vulnerable and low-yielding varieties, unreliable rainfall, diseases, pests, and poor farming practices contribute to reduced tomato production. Bacterial wilt is the most devastating tomato disease in terms of yield losses and complicated management considering pathogen diversity and the soil-borne nature of the disease. On-farm trials and bioassays were conducted to determine the efficacy of anaerobic soil disinfestation (ASD) with wheat bran, rice bran, molasses, and cow manure as carbon sources in suppressing bacterial wilt disease of tomato. We established randomized complete block design (RCBD) experiments in nine fields in Misufini, Mlali villages in Morogoro and Image of Iringa region in mainland Tanzania. The bioassay experiment was also laid in a RCBD and conducted at Sokoine University of Agriculture (SUA) greenhouses using soil naturally infested with Ralstonia pseudosolanacearum collected from the same nine fields. The treatments reduced bacterial wilt incidence in tomatoes grown in ASD-treated soils compared to non-treated control soils in field trials at Misufini 1 (P=0.0205), Misufini 2 (0.0061), and Mlali 2 (P =0.019). There were no significant differences among ASD treatments with different carbon sources in disease incidence. This trend was also observed in the bioassays in which bacterial wilt incidence and area under disease progress curves in tomato seedlings grown in field-treated soils from Image, Mlali, and Misufini were significantly lower than in non-treated controls (P <0.0001). This study confirms that ASD can be used as an important suppressor of pathogens through a soil rejuvenation process that involves the creation of an anaerobic environment in water-saturated soil amended with high carbon-based organic materials.
Anaerobic soil disinfection; bioassay; Ralstonia pseudosolanacearum; latent infection
Factors influencing traders' participation in rice export market in Tanzania
A complex interplay of socio-economic, product attributes, market forces, and institutional factors influences the participation of rice traders in export markets. Despite many studies on rice traders' export market participation, the challenge of rice traders’ engagement in rice trade and export activities, particularly in developing countries, is context-specific. This paper analyzed specific socio-economic and institutional factors affecting rice traders’ decisions regarding export markets participation in Tanzania. Utilizing survey data from 150 randomly selected rice traders across eight distinct trading zones, the study employs binary regression analysis to examine these factors. Results indicate that gender, years of experience in rice trading, capital availability, and access to market information significantly impact traders' decisions to enter export markets (P<0.05). The findings highlight that inadequate market information and insufficient capital are primary barriers to participation. The study concludes with a recommendation for government intervention to enhance access to market information and credit facilities, thereby boosting rice traders' involvement in export markets to meet the demand in neighboring countries. Also, the government should embrace a multi-stakeholder innovation platform for building and strengthening partnerships and collaborative learning among both public and private actors to improve marketing decisions among rice traders for attaining the Sustainable Development goals in the country.
Export markets; market information; market participation; rice traders; Tanzania
Evaluation of elite cashew hybrids developed in 1998 under the agro-ecological conditions of Nachingwea in Southern Tanzania
Performance of the cashew hybrids developed in the 1990s found to be potential in terms of yield and nut quality compared to varieties released for commercialization in Tanzania. Based on these results, breeders in Tanzania directed their efforts toward improving nut quality to cope with modern cashew processing machines, which require medium to large nuts. In 1998, fifty eight (58) crosses were developed involving a number of parents with contrasting but useful traits. These hybrids were evaluated at Naliendele for seven years from 1999 to 2006 and 26 elite hybrids were selected for advanced genetic trial. The hybrids were evaluated at Nachingwea, one of the major cashew growing districts in the Southern zone of Tanzania to find out if they were suitable in the area. The data on yield and nut quality were recorded for a period of twelve years. Commercial and common variety Anacardium ceylon 4 (AC4) was used as a control. Screening of the hybrids against Cashew Leaf and Nut Blight Disease was another parameter under study. Results indicated that 23 hybrids out of 26 had good nut quality particularly on nut weight and kernel weight than AC4 and a total of 13 hybrids gave higher yields compared to control (AC4). Screening of the hybrids against the disease demonstrated that majority of the hybrids were tolerant to the disease opening an opportunity to get new cashew varieties tolerant to the disease. The control variety, which is susceptible to cashew leaf and nut blight disease had higher score and ranked last but one indicating hybrids, had lower score than AC4. These hybrids are therefore recommended for multiplication and distribution in Nachingwea and areas with similar environmental conditions like Nachingwea.
Cashew; hybrid; yield; nut quality; cashew blight disease
Predicament for the sustainability of wood-based industries in the Lake Zone, Tanzania
Wood-based industries make significant contribution to the utilization of forest products in terms of value addition. However, there is limited scientific evidence on the current development status of wood-based industries in the Lake Zone, which comprises Mwanza, Geita, Kagera, Shinyanga, Simiyu, and Mara regions. This study assessed the status of these industries and their optimal productivity level, types of raw materials used, their sources and quantity, trends of consumption of raw materials for wood-based industries, and the capacity of forest resources to sustain raw materials demands. Data collection methods involve desk review, interviews, field observation, and satellite image classification for plantation types and other land covers. The Lake Zone has 198 registered primary wood-based industries, which comprise only Sawmills. Most of these industries sourced wood raw materials from forest plantations as well as woodlots. Planted area of the plantations and woodlots in the zone is about 50,646.82 ha, with Pinus species covering 33,622.56 ha (66.39%) and Eucalyptus covering 17,024.26 ha (33.61%), yielding a total allowable cut of 67,988 m³ (22%). The annual demand, however, stands at 315,800 m³, resulting in a deficit of 247,812 m³ for the industries to operate at a normal state. The major challenges affecting the sustainability of forest plantations in the Lake Zone include the rapid expansion of primary wood-based industries focused mainly on sawmilling, uncontrolled livestock grazing, frequent fire outbreaks, and the use of poor-quality planting materials. To sustain the primary wood-based industries, more efforts are needed to establish more tree woodlots and plantations and improve their management. Despite the low supply of wood raw materials that focus on only sawmill technologies, the zone has the opportunity of the availability of wood residues emanating from the sawmills. Investment in appropriate Engineered Wood Products technologies, which could utilize the vast wood residues, is recommended.
Forest plantations; forest resources; Lake Zone; primary wood-based industries; sawmills; woodlots
LC-MS/MS Detected Lower Valued of Dexamethasone and Prednisolone in Powdered Herbal Medicines Sold in Tanzania.
As a consequence of perceived quality and safety of herbal medicines in varied communities, adulteration of such medicines with synthetic drugs has become a growing global concern. This study assessed the adulteration of herbal medicines with dexamethasone and prednisolone using LC-MS/MS.The optimized method was used to confirm presence of conventional drugs (dexamethasone and/or prednisolone) in the fourteen samples suspected to be adulterated after screening with TLC. This method was validated by determining coefficient of determination, limit of detection and limit of quantitation. Coefficient of determination for dexamethasone and prednisolone were 0.95 and 0.97 respectively. The limit of detection for dexamethasone and prednisolone were 13.79 ppm and 10.81 ppm respectively. The limit of quantitation was 41 ppm and 32 ppm for dexamethasone and prednisolone respectively. The results indicated that all 14 samples were adulterated with either all or one of the two suspected adulterants. It was observed that, while both prednisolone and dexamethasone were detected in nine herbal medicines samples, one (1) sample was adulterated with dexamethasone alone and four (4) samples were adulterated with prednisolone alone. However, the dexamethasone and prednisolone adulterants were only detected but could not be quantified because they were below quantification limit. The optimized method meets the International Council for Harmonization (ICH) standards therefore can be used to confirm the presence of dexamethasone and prednisolone in herbal medicines.
Adulteration, Dexamethasone,Herbal Medicines, LC-MS/MS, Prednisolone
Determination of farmers’ willingness to pay for improved maize seed in Morogoro using field experiment for enhancing agricultural productivity
This study determined the willingness to pay (WTP) for improved maize seeds among smallholder farmers in Morogoro region using Becker DeGroote Marschak (BDM) and Take It or Leave It (TIOLI) elicitation methods. It also assessed factors affecting willingness to pay for the improved maize seed. The study area includes Kilosa and Mvomero districts in Morogoro region, chosen for their significant maize production and accessibility. A sample size of 208 maize-producing households was selected using purposive and random sampling. The field experiment was done with each household on how they purchase seed in the market. Descriptive statistics was used to explain the household characteristics and to estimate the mean willingness to pay. The Probit and linear regressions were used to assess the factors that influence the willingness to pay for improved maize seeds. By combining incentive-compatible experimental methods with regression analysis, this study provides rare field-based evidence on affordable price thresholds for improved seed adoption among Tanzanian smallholders. Results indicate that the mean WTP for 2kg of improved maize seeds was approximately Tshs 5231 using the BDM method and Tshs 5000 using the TIOLI method. Implying that farmers are ready to purchase the improved maize seed at an average price of 5000Tshs to ensure continuity of using the seeds. The factors influencing WTP included maize yield, plot size, education level, and land terrain. The study concludes that smallholder farmers in the study area are willing to invest in improved maize seeds, particularly when the seeds are reasonably priced and accessible. Key policy recommendations include government subsidies for improved seeds, enhanced agricultural extension services, and promoting farmer cooperatives.
BDM; TIOLI; improved seed; maize seeds; productivity; willingness to pay
Inefficiency of rice production in Kilombero-Tanzania from stochastic profit frontier model: Farming household as a unit of analysis
Rice grain is substantially touching livelihoods of majority in the world since half of the world’s human population rely on the grain for food. Tanzania as a country has been trying to produce rice tremendously in an effort to make livelihoods of its people, making the country in first ranking for East African region in rice production. However, such a good position of the country in rice production has not been reflected in the profit that farming households accrue. This study surveyed 100 farming households in Kilombero district as a showcase to understand why there has been such economic inefficiencies. This research paper used Stochastic Profit Frontier Model (SPFM) to test the hypothesis that socioeconomic aspects do not explain profit inefficiencies of farming households. Results from SPFM showed that farming households in the study area experience economic inefficiency of 24.1% which has been caused by their state of not being technically and allocatively efficient. Further, labor cost was found leading determinant of economic efficiency among other factors. Inefficiencies in profit were eventually found being attributable to socioeconomics specifically irrigation technology used, participation to off-farm economic activities and access to support services like extension and credit facilities. Finally, findings suggest that labor sharing cooperative society could be formed in the study area for labor expense minimization and the conduction of technical trainings to farmers is generally vital to make them producing efficiently especially from economic sense.
Screening of groundnut (Arachis hypogea L.) genotypes for yield performance in three agro-ecological zones of Tanzania
Groundnut is one of the most important oilseed crops and the most important food crop in the world. It is one of the four economically important oilseeds grown in Tanzania. Groundnut is normally produced by small-scale farmers, particularly women, as leverage crop for both food and cash crops in all Tanzanian agricultural and ecological zones. However, its production is constrained by several biotic and abiotic factors. The presence of environmental effects on the genotype performance (G*E) is one of the major constraints of production. This study sought to evaluate and identify widely adapted and high-yielding genotypes in three agro-ecological zones of Tanzania. A total of sixteen selected groundnut genotypes were evaluated under RCBD with three replications. Data on morphological traits, yield and yield components were collected and analysed. Results revealed the differential performance of the tested genotypes (p < 0.001). Three genotypes ICGIL 17113, NALX-22-18 and ICGV-SM 16528 have shown consistence performance across test environments that guaranteed the existence of potential to revert and combat both nutritional and better yield. The highest average yield was observed in genotype ICGV-SM 16528 having 1582 kg/ha while the lowest average yield was observed in genotype ICGV- SM 05534 having 733.05 kg/ha. Among the three genotypes, genotype ICGV-SM 16528 has shown consistent good performance across environments. As an oilseed crop, the nation may utilize those opportunities to solve the problem of the cooking oil insufficiency and nutritional issues of our communities since groundnut has important nutrients required for normal human health. Evaluated genotypes along with existing ones should be integrated in groundnut farming systems to enhance the production efficiency and the livelihoods of farming community. The breeders will use these findings to explore more genetic base of groundnuts for further improvement.
Groundnut; genotypes; kernel yield; multi-environmental trial; experimental; genotype x environment interaction
Genotype x environment interaction of selected common beans (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) on seed iron and zinc concentrations
The study was conducted in three sub-ecological locations in Morogoro to assess the effect of environments on seed iron (Fe) and zinc (Zn) concentration. The specific locations were Ndole, Kasanga, and Mlali, each representing distinct environmental conditions. To achieve a comprehensive assessment, 30 bean genotypes were planted using a Completely Randomized Block Design in three replications. Data on seed Fe and Zn concentration among bean genotypes were collected and analyzed using Analysis of Variance (ANOVA). Additionally, a GGE biplot analysis was utilized to evaluate the stability of the bean genotypes in terms of their seed Fe and Zn concentrations across environments. The use of the GGE biplot provided a visual representation of the genotype’s performance and stability, facilitating the identification of the most promising genotypes. The analysis of variance indicated that there was no significant difference (P≤0.05) in seed Fe concentration within each location, but a significant difference was revealed across locations. Seed Zn concentration showed a highly significant difference (P≤0.001) among bean genotypes both within and across locations. The average seed Fe concentration was 165.1 mg/kg in Ndole, 129.9 mg/kg in Kasanga, and 92.4 mg/kg in Mlali. For seed Zn concentration, the averages were 28.0 mg/kg, 26.9 mg/kg, and 32.8 mg/kg for Ndole, Kasanga, and Mlali, respectively. The GGE biplot revealed that the genotypes Maini Ndefu (G2), NUA-695 (G20), NUA-590 (G14), and Selian-10 (G24) exhibited high stability with high seed Fe concentration, while the genotypes Rojo (G3), Selian-10 (G24), TARI-06 (G30), and Uyole-04 (G27) exhibited high stability with high seed Zn concentration. Therefore, the best-performing genotypes identified in this study can be recommended for further research and potential release as enhanced varieties for bean farmers. These genotypes can potentially contribute to enhanced nutritional quality and agricultural productivity in the region.
Common bean; genotype x environment interaction; iron and zinc concentration; Phaseolus vulgaris
Enhancing cassava disease detection using CNN models trained from scratch: A comparative study with transfer learning approaches
Agriculture is a vital sector, with farmers playing a crucial role in producing food and supporting the global population. However, plant diseases pose significant challenges, leading to substantial crop yield losses and threatening food security., Artificial intelligence models, particularly convolutional neural networks (CNNs), are widely used for object identification and image classification. Although transfer learning techniques help reduce computation time, CNNs often struggle to differentiate between highly similar images because of the limited flexibility in configuring and fine-tuning parameters. To address issues related to random configuration, feature selection, and model architecture, we present a CNN model with 15 layers, trained from scratch. This approach allows for a setup and design better suited to the task of distinguishing similar images. The proposed model is compared to two other CNN-based transfer learning models, InceptionV3 and VGG16, which are trained solely on the top layers with fixed bottom layers. Experimental results indicate that the proposed model outperformed the other models by 24%, achieving an accuracy of 84% over 50 epochs. The experimental results suggest that the proposed approach can achieve even better performance with additional training epochs, as the model's training graph was still improving.
Assessing farmer’s perception of conservation status of agrobiodiversity in selected agroecological zones of Tanzania
Agrobiodiversity serves as the foundation for resilient agricultural systems, sustainable food availability and nutritional diversity, and ecologically sound livelihoods of the community. Ecological services provided by rich agrobiodiversity ensure that people earn their livelihood and the sustainability of the coming generations is certain. Understanding how communities depend on agrobiodiversity may be well captured on the merit of agroecological landscapes because they entail how each species accrues to the agroecosystem thus enabling accurate judgment on the importance of such agrobiodiversity from the collective view of farmers, ecologists and agricultural scientists. The participatory four-cell assessment was employed in gender disaggregated focus group discussions (FGD) conducted in three contrasting agroecological zones of Tanzania to assess the status of agrobiodiversity conservation and utilisation in rural farming communities. Diversity indices were calculated to determine relative species richness and abundances across AEZ, Species Threat Index was calculated using modified IUCN formula to determine the influence of each farming systems, topography and gender roles on collective farmer’s perception of conservation and use of agrobiodiversity, t-test and analysis of variance (ANOVA) was used to infer the observed index score. The results show that species abundance and distribution were lowest in semi-arid agroecology and highest in the coastal zone despite showing highest similarity in species composition. Generally, farmers perceived the status of agrobiodiversity as fairy secure with species threat index ranging from 0.39 to 0.59, mean = 0.48 (s.d =0.06). Interesting pattern of variations in perception was observed across AEZ, along topographies and between genders despite statistical insignificances. Nevertheless, these findings emphasize the importance of understanding the human-environment interaction that determine sustainability of agrobiodiversities. This paper serves as base information on the quest to understand underlying factors determining farmers’ constant need to decide on the utilisation and conservation of agrobiodiversity.
Exploring the effectiveness of commercialization pathways for university research outputs in Tanzania
In today’s fast-changing world with increasing demand for innovation, universities play an important role in generating new ideas and technologies. However, in developing countries, particularly across Sub-Saharan Africa, turning university research into useful products or solutions is still a challenge. Moreover, there is limited research on the commercialization of university research outputs from developing countries. Most studies focus on developed countries, where R&D activities are more advanced and supported by robust innovation ecosystems, which are quite distinct from developing countries like Tanzania. As a result, only a few products from Tanzanian universities reach the market, making them lag in terms of their research and commercialization capabilities. The study explores the effectiveness of commercialization pathways, aiming to improve the translation of university research outputs into tangible societal benefits. Drawing on case studies from eleven (11) selected universities in Tanzania, the study found that the process of turning research into real-world products can be improved in several ways. These include strengthening collaboration with industries, streamlining intellectual property processes, and fostering a culture of entrepreneurship. The study offers recommendations for universities, industry, and policymakers to optimize the commercialization process and unlock the full potential of university research outputs. It proposes that each university should choose the appropriate commercialization pathway based on the type of innovation or technology developed, the university’s strategic goals, capabilities, resources and the desired outcomes such as revenue generation, entrepreneurship, or societal impact. Eventually, improving how universities commercialize their research can help speed up innovation, boost economic growth, and solve pressing societal problems.
Commercialization pathways; Incubation; Innovation; Technology transfer; University research outputs
Stakeholder engagement and social network mapping for effective faecal sludge management in urban settings: A case of Arusha city, Tanzania
<a href="https://eajsti.org/index.php/EAJSTI/Approximately 75% of the Tanzanian population depends on inadequate sanitation management services, with urban areas facing significant challenges due to the improper handling of faecal sludge (FS), leading to contamination of water sources and a considerable public health risk. This trend is evident in Arusha City, where over 70% of the population relies on onsite sanitation systems, generating substantial quantities of FS that surpass the capacity of available treatment infrastructure. Given Arusha's status as a key tourist hub in Tanzania, improving faecal sludge management (FSM) is crucial for ensuring public health and environmental sustainability. This study examined the role of stakeholder engagement and social network mapping in enhancing FSM in urban settings, using Arusha City as a case study. Stakeholders involved in FSM were identified through key informant interviews, facilitated by the snowball sampling technique. The information gathered was supplemented by document reviews. Stakeholder influence and interest were analyzed using a ranking method in conjunction with a Power vs. Interest matrix, while social network relationships among stakeholders were visualized using Social Network Visualizer version 3.1 software. The results indicate that key stakeholders with significant power and interest (>80%) in FSM include the Ministry of Water (MoW), the President’s Office - Regional Administration and Local Government (PO-RALG), the Ministry of Health (MoH), the Ministry of Education (MoE), and the Ministry of Finance and Planning (MoF). However, the Arusha Urban Water and Sanitation Authority (AUWSA) and the Arusha City Council (ACC) are central institutions responsible for FSM within the city. Additionally, 97% of interlocutors highlighted the importance of effective social relationships among stakeholders for improving FSM outcomes. The study concludes that involving all relevant stakeholders in both the planning and project implementation promotes a sense of ownership and accountability, thereby enhancing the effectiveness of FSM initiatives and reducing the risk of misconduct.">Approximately 75% of the Tanzanian population depends on inadequate sanitation management services, with urban areas facing significant challenges due to the improper handling of faecal sludge (FS), leading to contamination of water sources and a considerable public health risk. This trend is evident in Arusha City, where over 70% of the population relies on onsite sanitation systems, generating substantial quantities of FS that surpass the capacity of available treatment infrastructure. Given Arusha's status as a key tourist hub in Tanzania, improving faecal sludge management (FSM) is crucial for ensuring public health and environmental sustainability. This study examined the role of stakeholder engagement and social network mapping in enhancing FSM in urban settings, using Arusha City as a case study. Stakeholders involved in FSM were identified through key informant interviews, facilitated by the snowball sampling technique. The information gathered was supplemented by document reviews. Stakeholder influence and interest were analyzed using a ranking method in conjunction with a Power vs. Interest matrix, while social network relationships among stakeholders were visualized using Social Network Visualizer version 3.1 software. The results indicate that key stakeholders with significant power and interest (>80%) in FSM include the Ministry of Water (MoW), the President’s Office - Regional Administration and Local Government (PO-RALG), the Ministry of Health (MoH), the Ministry of Education (MoE), and the Ministry of Finance and Planning (MoF). However, the Arusha Urban Water and Sanitation Authority (AUWSA) and the Arusha City Council (ACC) are central institutions responsible for FSM within the city. Additionally, 97% of interlocutors highlighted the importance of effective social relationships among stakeholders for improving FSM outcomes. The study concludes that involving all relevant stakeholders in both the planning and project implementation promotes a sense of ownership and accountability, thereby enhancing the effectiveness of FSM initiatives and reducing the risk of misconduct.
Role of stakeholders in Faecal sludge management in Urban settings
Pathogenicity of sisal brown leaf spot and associated fungal species in Tanzania: A multi-site investigation
Sisal (Agave sisalana) and aloe, members of the Agavaceae family, are economically important crops in Tanzania, with sisal primarily grown in coastal regions and aloe distributed as wild plants. Sisal brown leaf spot (BLS) disease, initially reported in 1982, poses a significant threat to the sisal industry, impacting fiber quality and productivity. This study aimed to investigate the pathogenicity of BLS and identify the associated fungal species. Eight symptomatic sisal plants and rhizosphere soil samples were collected from farms in Morogoro, Kilosa, and Korogwe, along with one wild aloe plant from Lake Eyasi in Arusha. Conventional and molecular methods were used for pathogen isolation and identification, including colony morphology, microscopic examination, and ITS Sanger sequencing. The results revealed the presence of Alternaria species in both sisal and aloe samples and Fusarium species in soil samples. Pathogenicity tests confirmed that Alternaria species induce typical BLS symptoms in inoculated sisal plants, while Fusarium species contribute to disease severity through synergistic interactions. The study highlights the influence of environmental conditions and agronomic practices on disease incidence and severity, emphasizing the need for region-specific management strategies. This multi-site investigation provides valuable insights into the management and control of BLS disease, contributing to the development of effective control measures to enhance the productivity and sustainability of sisal plantations in Tanzania. Future research should focus on integrated disease management, soil health improvement, and collaborative efforts among stakeholders to ensure the viability of the sisal industry.
Aloe, Alternaria; brown leaf spot; fungal pathogens; Fusarium; sisal; Tanzania
Potential of host resistance as an important tool in the management of bacterial wilt in tomatoes
Bacterial wilt is a major bacterial disease that impacts tomato (Solanum lycopersicum) production in Tanzania. The disease is caused by members of soil borne Ralstonia solanacearum with complex pathogen variability and a wide host range complicating its management. We established the use of tomato lines MT56 and WG120 and eggplant line EG190 from the pre-screening experiment to evaluate resistance against Ralstonia pseudosolanacearum strains collected from key tomato-growing regions of Tanzania. Among the three lines resistant to bacterial wilt infection, MT56 and EG190 were selected as rootstocks for grafting with the susceptible tomato variety Moneymaker. Grafted seedlings were challenged with a mixture of strains that were previously used in the evaluation of rootstocks. Grafted seedlings had significantly reduced bacterial wilt incidence compared to self-grafted Moneymaker. Bacterial wilt disease progress as measured by area under disease progress curves (AUDPCs) varied significantly among rootstock/scion combinations (P=0.0190). The area under the disease progress curve values was consistently low for self-grafted rootstock and rootstock/scion grafted seedlings. This study demonstrates the potential of using host resistance as an efficient and environmentally friendly management option for bacterial wilt disease.
Bacterial wilt; Host; Ralstonia pseudosolanacearum; Ralstonia solanacearum; Resistance; Rootstock
Empowering education through technology: Strategies for seamless integration in secondary schools, Tanzania
The disparity between the availability of ICT infrastructure and its effective use in classrooms raises questions about whether existing strategies adequately address the challenges teachers face in integrating technology into teaching and learning. Thus, the purpose of the study was to explore supportive strategies for promoting the use of technology in the teaching and learning process so as to bridge the existing gap. To gain a thorough grasp of the phenomenon being studied, the study employed a qualitative research approach and a case study design. A sample of forty-four (44) participants from four secondary schools was formed through the purposeful sampling of four (4) heads of schools, twenty (20) teachers, and twenty (20) students. Focus groups, observations, and interviews were the methods used to collect data. The obtained data were analysed using thematic analysis technique. The six steps that Braun and Clarke (2022) created served as the basis for the theme analysis. The results showed that teachers should be supported with ICT resources, computer literacy programs, teachers’ motivation, technical and administrative support in order to promote technology integration in the teaching and learning process. The study recommends government and schools to provide encouragement, clear guidance, and incentives for teachers to adopt and integrate technology in instructional practices.
Teaching and Learning; Technology Integration
Comparative storage conditions on the post-harvest losses and quality of tomato (Solanum lycopersicum L.) fruits
Tomato (Solanum lycopersicum L.) is a member of the Solanaceae family, and its fruit is perishable with low shelf life due to postharvest losses, which depend on the variety, management and storage practices. Temperature also influences post-harvest life of tomato and rate of biological processes including ripening, softening, flavour, aroma, and weight loss. The optimum temperature influencing good quality of tomato fruit, enhancing shelf life and minimizing post-harvest losses is inadequately determined. Therefore, the objective of this study was to determine the effect of optimal storage temperature on quality and marketability parameters of tomato fruits. The experiment was carried out in the laboratory of post-harvest at Sokoine University Agriculture using Completely Randomized Design (CRD) arrangement of treatments replicated three times. The experiment had two treatments which include tomato fruits stored at Ambient (26±1°C) and Cool Bolt (16±1°C). The result showed that the highest weight loss (7.71%) was for Ambient (26±1°C), while the least loss (3.01%) was recorded for tomato fruits stored in Cool Bolt (16±1°C). Tomato fruits showed significant increase in hue, chlorophyll degradation and weight and firmness loss. The rate of reduction in hue angle of fruits stored at ambient (26±1°C) was low compared to that of the fruits stored at Cool Bolt (16±1°C). The shelf life of the fruits significantly increased (p<0.001) with decreasing storage temperature. Cold storage (Cold Bot) further, was able to maintain marketability value by 98.9% compared to 60.1% of ambient storage. However, it has shown no influence on Titratable Acid (TA) and Total Soluble Solids/Titratable Acid (TSS/TA) ratio. Therefore, Cold Bolt (16±1°C) storage has greater influence in maintenance of physiochemical quality parameters of tomato fruits. The study concludes that Cool Bot treatment was able to preserve tomato color for longer periods, than ambient storage.
Ambient condition; cold bolt; shelf life; storage; tomato
Assessment of biomass from an invasive plant, Eleusine jaegeri, as a potential feedstock for the production of biomass briquettes
The study assessed the feasibility of Eleusine jaegeri, an invasive plant in the Ngorongoro Conservation Area rangelands, as a feedstock for biomass briquette production. It addresses innovative ways of improving rangeland quality while enhancing access to alternative sources of domestic heat energy for the community. The study compared the combustion properties of E. jaegeri briquettes with traditional charcoal and rice husk briquettes, including heat energy, volatile matter, ash content, fixed carbon, and moisture content. Additionally, social perceptions were also analyzed in pastoral villages through household surveys and focus group discussions to gauge community acceptance of E. jaegeri briquettes as an alternative source of cooking energy. Results showed that E. jaegeri biomass exhibited comparable burning qualities to conventional charcoal. The measured contents of heat energy, fixed carbon and moisture from E. jaegeri were within the range for various energy applications recommended by the Tanzania Bureau of Standards (TBS). However, its high ash content (41.39%) suggests the need for further refinement in biomass handling and carbonization processes. Community feedback indicated that using E. jaegeri briquettes could reduce health risks, improve ecological sustainability, and mitigate human-wildlife conflicts, presenting socio-ecological advantages over traditional fuelwood. Additionally, the efficient burning qualities of biomass briquettes increase user satisfaction, promoting healthier living conditions for rural communities. In conclusion, E. jaegeri shows promise as a viable, sustainable bioenergy source, supporting both environmental conservation and economic benefits. Promoting its use as an alternative fuel could positively impact rangeland quality and livelihoods in Tanzania.
Inconspicuous practices affecting students’ enrolment and continuation in STEM in Ordinary Level secondary schools: Analysis of teachers’ and students’ experiences
STEM is vital to industrialisation, technological advancement and scientific innovations. Despite the importance of STEM education, in Tanzania, there is a decline in the number of students taking Chemistry and Physics subjects, poor performance, and the fact that these subjects are often optional in many schools. This study examined the subtle practices that discourage students from taking Physics and Chemistry subjects as part of STEM in ordinary-level secondary schools. This phenomenological study purposively selected and interviewed 25 participants from 12 secondary schools in Mvomero, Mbeya, Tabora, and Nzega districts in Tanzania, all of whom consented to participate. The authors used the content analysis method to analyse the data and presented it in themes, supported by direct quotations. The findings indicate that schools use standard seven and FTNA results to stream students. In contrast, teachers tend to regard higher achievers as more suited to science subjects and low achievers as less suited, regardless of their interests. The low achiever streams hardly receive additional support in STEM because teachers consider them unfit. Schools force higher achievers who are uninterested in science to study Physics and Chemistry while denying interested low achievers a chance to study them. Although teachers believe streaming motivates students to work hard, it does not help students improve their performance as it neglects the needs and interests of students. The study recommends that the government make Chemistry and Physics subjects compulsory and ensure adequate school resources. Schools should encourage teachers to devise appropriate learning support for students to enrol and succeed in STEM subjects.
Analysis of the spatial-temporal model for harvested predator-prey system with prey refuge and intraspecific competition
This study investigated the spatial-temporal dynamics of a predator-prey system incorporating prey refuge, intraspecific competition, harvesting, and diffusion. Spatial pattern formation in a predator-prey system governed by a reaction-diffusion framework was also considered. By incorporating spatial movement through diffusion, the non-spatial model by Mapunda and Sagamiko was extended into a partial differential equation (PDE) framework, enabling the analysis of self-organized spatial patterns such as spots and stripes that arose due to Turing instability. The coexistence equilibrium was analyzed for stability, and numerical simulations were performed using the Implicit-Explicit (IMEX) Euler method for time integration with the finite difference method employed for discretization of the Laplacian operator under Neumann boundary conditions (zero-flux), assuming no population flux across the boundary. The impact of key ecological parameters, particularly the refuge rate m and diffusion coefficients and on population distribution and pattern evolution was systematically explored. Simulation results revealed that increasing diffusion coefficients enhanced well-defined spatial aggregation of predators and prey while decreasing the refuge level intensified predation pressure and accelerated pattern formation. Specifically, when (predators diffused faster than prey), the homogeneous coexistence equilibrium destabilized, leading to Turing-type patterns including isolated hotspots and periodic bands. At higher refuge levels such as combined with elevated predator diffusion ( the system exhibited stable and matured spot patterns, indicating a balance between protection and mobility. These findings highlight the critical role of species mobility and protective mechanisms in shaping ecosystem structure and offered important insights for conservation strategies and the sustainable management of harvested populations in spatially heterogeneous environments.
Predator, Prey, Prey refuge, Intraspecific competition, Reaction-Difussion, Spatiotemporal, Turing instability,
Plants and procedures used for traditional processing of sour milk (Amakamo) by the Bahima of Kiruhura District, Uganda
Amakamo, a traditionally fermented milk product has been consumed by the cattle keeping communities of South-Western Uganda for a long time but its production process is not well understood. To achieve this, a cross-sectional study was carried out in Kiruhura District to document the plants and procedures followed during amakamo processing though interviews and focus group discussions. The plants were collected, identified and vouchers deposited at the Makerere University Herbarium. A total of 108 respondents were interviewed, majority of whom were females (92.6%), had experience in amakamo processing ranging between 20 and 29 years (69.4%), and learnt the skill from their parents (92%). Most (55.6%) respondents were aged between 31 and 40 years, processed amakamo daily (88%), mainly for home consumption (92.6%). The key steps in amakamo processing include cream separation, boiling, cooling, backslopping, fermentation and curd breaking. The most reported cause of amakamo processing failure is the plant used to smoke the vessels (60. 2%, n=108), followed by poor quality starter culture (18.5 %, n=108). The commonest sign of unsuccessfully processed amakamo is milk separation (60.2 %, n=108). Eighteen plants belonging to 14 families were reported most of which (16.7%) belong to Poaceae family. All respondents (100%) cited Thunbergia alata, Hoslundia opposita, Albizia coriaria, Combretum molle, Loudetia kagerensis and Hyparrhenia filipendula as useful plants in amakamo processing. The most predominant plant life forms were shrubs (33.3%) followed by trees (27.8%). Most plants (27.8%) were used to scrub and smoke fermentation vessels. Aerial parts were the most commonly (50%) used parts and almost all (94.4%) of the plants used were from wild habitats. Further studies should be done to investigate the phytochemical composition of the plants used to smoke fermentation vessels and how they affect the quality of the amakamo.
Amakamo; Fermented milk; Kiruhura District; Plants; Uganda
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Milk handling practices and milk spoilage along the informal dairy value chain of Uganda
This study examined awareness and milk handling practices among key actors in Uganda’s informal dairy value chain, where smallholder farmers depend heavily on milk for income, nutrition, and livelihoods. Conducted between January and April 2024, the research used a cross-sectional design covering six milk sheds. A multistage cluster sampling approach yielded data from 384 farmers, 231 Milk Collection Centres (MCCs), and 70 small and medium enterprises (SMEs). Analysis involved descriptive statistics and mixed-effects logistic regression to identify factors associated with milk spoilage. Among farmers, several unhygienic behaviors were common, including long fingernails (48%), poor handwashing (34%), and improper coughing or sneezing during milking. Critical practices such as not washing udders (50.9%), using a single cloth for multiple cows (33.3%), and inadequate cleaning of containers were significantly linked to milk spoilage (p < 0.05). Key predictors included poor udder hygiene, which greatly increased spoilage risk, while proper handwashing and the use of aluminum containers reduced it. At the MCC level, risky behaviors such as body scratching and poor hygiene practices influenced milk quality. Conversely, practices like milk testing and wearing gumboots were associated with reduced spoilage. Among SMEs, roles involving milk handling, such as operators and quality controllers, were strongly linked to contamination risk. Additionally, using cloths for filtering milk significantly affected spoilage outcomes. Overall, the findings demonstrate that poor hygiene practices are the primary drivers of milk contamination across all stages of the informal dairy value chain. The study highlights the urgent need for targeted training, improved awareness, and technical support to enhance milk handling practices. Strengthening these areas is essential to reduce spoilage, improve milk quality, and safeguard public health in Uganda’s dairy sector.
Study of some quality parameters of palm oils sold in Bujumbura markets in Burundi
People in and around Bujumbura city of Burundi use palm oil extensively, generally in both crude and refined forms. However, these oils sold in the markets are exposed to various factors affecting quality which include sunlight, unhygienic containers, and heat. This study aimed to assess some quality parameters of crude and refined palm oils sold in five markets in Bujumbura and to determine whether these parameters meet the standards. Furthermore, the crude and refined oils sold were compared in terms of these parameters, and a sample distribution was performed using Principal Component Analysis (PCA). After sampling, physical, chemical and spectroscopic methods were used to determine physicochemical parameters and total carotenoids. The average results for refined and crude palm oils, respectively were: relative density (RD) 0.892±0.001; 0.887±0.001, refractive index (RI) 1.463±0.001; 1.462±0.001, moisture and matter volatile (MVH) 0.974±0.527 % (m/m); 2.429±2.196% (m/m), impurity levels (TII) 4.642±1.228% (m/m); 9.468±1.703% (m/m), the acid value (AV) 4.581±0.591 mg KOH/g; 37.190±1.789 mg KOH/g, the free fatty acid contents (FFA) 2.165±0.757%; 18.671±4.947%, the iodine value (IV) 50.252±7.179 g I2/100 g ; 54.3±10. 531 g I2/100 g, the peroxide value (PV) 5.8±2.263 meq O2/kg; 5.3±2.970 meq O2/kg; the saponification value (SV) 200.371±3.834 mg KOH/g; 195.384±4.540 mg KOH/g; and the total carotenoid (TC) 10.574±3.801 ppm; 738.913±81.467 ppm. The results of the physicochemical analyses showed that only four (4) parameters met the Burundian and Codex Alimentarius standards. In addition, the total carotenoids contained in crude palm oils also complied with these standards. However, the high acid value (AV) or free fatty acid contents (FFA) and impurity levels (TII) are among the indicators of low quality of the crude oils. Based on these results, there is a need to further ensure the compliance to standards of the palm oils sold in different markets of the Bujumbura city.